Traits, Personality and Crime

One of the biggest societal problems in society is crime, which is difficult to eradicate. The global crime rate fluctuates, creating significant issues for people like mistrust, perception error, rage, public fear, and also leads to grief among the friends and family members of a victimized person. The horrific nature of offenses across the globe has attracted many researchers to conduct in depth studies pertaining to the factors and causes that facilitate criminal behavior. These studied have led to the development of various theories which explains the criminal behavior. Some of the theories argue that crime is linked to personality traits. This paper will discuss the relationship between personality traits and crimes as stated by the life course theory.

Personality Traits and Life Course Theory

According to American Psychiatric Association (1994), personality traits refer to an enduring trend of perceiving, thinking and relating to the environment and the individual that are possessed in a diverse range of personal and social contexts. Personality is defined as the unique attributes that reflects an individual, while traits refers to the dimensions of the person differences in the tendencies of showing consistent patterns of feelings, actions and thoughts. The life course theory looks at the chronological age, social changes, life transitions and relationships that shape the life of individuals from birth to death. It argues that there exist certain personality traits that are connected to malevolent behavior and criminality. Therefore, personality profile is very essential in the prediction of criminal behavior for it provides an insightful understanding of individual response to problems, communication with the environment and decision making.

Major Assumptions Of Life Course Theory

The life course theory was brought forth after studies were conducted to explain the development pathway or trajectories of people in their life. The theory attempts to explore the cause and development of career criminals. It also explains the effects that changes in society have in the development of the antisocial behavior. It discusses stability and change of deviant behavior, where it explains the extent to which criminal behavior are continued and discontinued in the life of a person (Gozubenli and Unal, 2014).

According to Gozubenli and Unal (2014), researchers have revealed that a small group of criminals is known to have committed major crimes over time in their life course. The studies have uncovered that children who display behavioral problem during their early ages are likely to continue with this behavior later in their life. The early appearance of some behavioral problems such as aggression and impulsiveness, mainly remain constant in life leading to those individuals committing major crimes. The life course theory introduces a prediction by identifying the existence of a strong relationship between crime and anti-social behavior portrayed early in life. For example, a study conducted by Roft and Marc (1990) shows that persons who displayed behavioral problem in their early life were more involved in crime than those who lacked the same pattern. Therefore, the earlier a kid exhibits deviant behavior, the more likely they will engage in crime commission. Developmental theory argues that stability and continuity are constant in the human behavior, such that the deviant behavior adopted early in life is displayed later in life. Therefore, scholars tend to refer to the children who portray unwarranted behaviors in their early life and further it are potential criminals. However, the likelihood of criminal careers are differentiated from one another in terms of the severity, frequency and length of resistance of committing crimes.

The theory identifies two important concepts- stability and continuity- that will help in understanding the source of criminal behavior. Stability refers to the source of the deviant behavior while continuity is producing that similar behavior pattern over a life course (Gozubenli and Unal, 2014). Personality traits are developed during the early childhood where the life experienced at this stage shapes their personality. Some children who obtain low self control in their childhood, remain with this personality in their life course, which makes it difficult for them to resist committing crimes. Therefore, children who engage in deviant behavior in their childhood due to lack of self control, continue to display criminality during their adolescence as well as adulthood.

Continuity is attained due to the contribution of various factors which include environmental influence, transactional processes, and genetic influences. Environmental factors may influence continuity throughout the life course, especially if it remains constant. In some cases, parental demands, peer influence and teachers’ expectations remain constant over a period of time, which lead to personality continuity since the environment is stable. There are various longitudinal studies that have been conducted to show the idea of continuity in the psychological perspective of adults and children’s environment of socialization, where significant observations of continuities have been reported from childhood to adolescence. Genetic factors contribute to both personality continuity and personality changes. Personality continuity may be studied in twin studies where the cross-twins correlations are analyzed by fitting the behaviors. Studies conducted reveals that genetic factors have an impact on the progress of the personality traits of individuals such that in areas where there is changes and continuity, people of same genetic factors behave similar. Finally, transactions across the person’s life course is influenced by three specific factors which play an essential role in promoting personality continuity and trajectory control. These transactions include reactive, evocative and proactive transactions. Reactive transactions take place when people are exposed to a similar environment, where they experience it, interpret and react to the environment differently. The basic assumption of the finding is that the early temperamental characteristics that are combined with the social experiences of an individual which lead to the particular interpretation into new social situations and relationships. Individuals interpret informational processes and new events in a consistent manner which is in line with an experimentally developed understanding of self and others. Individual differences also reflect on the unconscious mental processes. Evocative transactions take place when individual personality draws a distinctive response from others depending on the unique personality traits of the person. The actions of a person, the reaction of the environment and the person’s reactions back to the transaction is mutually interlocked. Such transactions continue to interact everyday, and promote the continuity of personality. In the early life, a child evokes consistently and responds to the social environment that has effects on their interactions with peers and adults. Proactive interactions take place when people create or select an environment on their own. Proactive transactions mostly involve the formation of friendships and a selection of mates. Personality impacts on the relationships since it serves to elaborate and maintain initial personality differences (Caspi and Brent, 2003).

Correlation or Causation of Personality Traits and Crimes

According to Kamaluddin, Shariff, and Othman (2015), specific inventories of personality have been used by researchers to identify personality traits that are likely to lead to criminality, which include Big Five Factor and Criminal behavior and the Eynseck Three Factor Model (PEN).

Big Five Factor and Criminal Behavior

Researchers have revealed that there are certain personality traits that are highly linked to criminality. Conscientiousness and agreeableness have been identified to influence criminality. For instance, delinquents aged between 12 and 13 years, who had committed drug dealing, strong arming behavior and burglary, displayed low conscientiousness, agreeableness and openness levels, but had higher scores on extraversion compared to the non-delinquents (Kamaluddin, Shariff and Othman, 2015). In gender comparison, men and women who are aggressive portrayed low agreeableness, low conscientiousness and high neuroticism. Therefore, the five personality factors that predict and influences criminality of an individual include conscientiousness, openness, agreeableness, extraversion and neuroticism.

PEN Factors and Crimininality

Psychoticism, extraversion and neuroticism are the major personality that is identified by Eynseck’s model which are related to criminality. The studies conducted revealed that delinquents showed a higher score of the PEN personalities than the non-delinquents. High neuroticism as associated with emotional instability, antisocial and impulsive behavior. Psyshoticism reflects lack of empathy, hostility, aggressiveness, cruelty, social deficits and psychopathy. Juvenile delinquency is related to an indication of high possession of neuroticism and psychoticism. In adult offenders, there is an indication of high scores of neiroticism as well as psychotism. The engagement in criminal activities is derived from seeking for high sensation and arousal. Researches have revealed that there is a positive association between seeking for sensations and a wide range of criminal behavior and imprudence such as alcohol, illicit drug abuse, risky sexual behavior and smoking.

Controversy Surrounding Life Course Theory

According to the Florida Department of Education (2003) the studies that led to the development of life course theory neglected the females since it only incorporated boys as participants. Even though there are undisputed facts about the existence of more male than female offenders, female should also be studied. The population of females who engage in criminality is increasing every day than the male counterparts. Therefore, it is important that the processes that produce the persistence, onset and resistance of the delinquency of female children be identified, since there could be a potential difference between the girls and the boys. It is still unclear whether the process of deviance among girls is more unique compared to the progression of the process of delinquency that is linked to men. Some researchers suggest that females are more resilient as well as amenable to change than male. Therefore, the theory is criticized for its failures to recognize the difference in genders. Some of the interventions that could be applied to reduce criminality should be gender sensitive.

The study is also criticized in the methodology used to collect the information. The data collection included some trivial items which results into formal interventions such as defying parental authority and skipping schools. In some cases, non-offenders may also report trivial occurrences such as fisticuffs of siblings which respond to questions of assaults. Therefore, some frequent offenders may provide underreported information about their delinquent behavior since the person’s actions occurs in a common place which are not salient in the memory of the offender.

The Application of the Theory in a Contemporary Criminal Justice Issue

Life course theory is used in the criminal justice system to design interventions that will help reduce reoffending. According to Rubin, Rabinovich, Hallsworth and Nason (2006), the interventions can be subdivided into two approaches which include coercive approach and developmental approach. Coercive approaches are designed to use restrictions, punitive measures and regulations so as to reduce the development of criminal behavior. According to Krueger, Schmutte, Caspi, Moffitt, Campbell and Silvia (1994) some of the strategies used include detention, imprisonments and sanctions such as anti-social behavior orders, which reduces the anti-social behavior. On the other hand, developmental approaches target to rehabilitate the individual behaviors that facilitate criminality by helping them gain technical-knowhow and capabilities that will lead into a more socially, integrative and constructive lifestyle. Some of the interventions used are skills, behavioral and education programs that help the potential offender. Other strategies also target youths who are at risk of offending and the children who may possess criminal personality traits (Farrington, 2002).

Quick measures are invaluable in the deterrence of criminal actions and anti-social behavior since the presence of delinquent behaviors in the child is potentially a strong predictor of future anti-social behavior or deviant of a person. However, other factors also contribute to risks of delinquency and antisocial behaviors such as the history of parents’ convictions and imprisonments, youthfulness of parents, poverty as well as single parenthood. For instance, in a study conducted among boys, 63 percent of them had fathers who had been convicted previously, and 61 percent boy whose mother had a history of convictions. Antisocial behavior was precipitated by having parents who had a history of convictions during the first 10 years of the child (Farrington, 1998).

The use of the life course theory to explain personality traits and crime is very essential since it emphasizes on deterrence, which are majorly in the form of punishment of citizens who are at risk of offending. Individuals with high impulsivity and low self-control responds positively and effectively to threats of punishment, hence it can be used to reduce offending (Rubin, Rabinovich, Hallsworth, & Nason, 2006).

Policy Contribution

The theory has contributed to policy making since on an average level, the strong degree of continuity of criminality is identified in a person, so that interventions are used at an early stage to reduce criminality in the future. According to Rubin, Rabinovich, Hallsworth and Nason (2006), the Crime and Disorder Act of 1998 was designed to deter anti-social behavior and preventing the escalation of the personality without necessarily resulting into criminal sanctions. The Act applies to persons of 10 years old and above, where it forbids them from doing some things and also restrict them from certain places. Interviews conducted among the police representatives and local authority reveal that antisocial behavior Act has been effective in solving certain problems and reducing anti-social behavior among individuals. However, the application of the order has been challenging due to some technical and procedural issues such as the means of acquiring the order from the court of law, which is very slow, dearly and needs the involvement of various agencies (court, local authorities, police), which are difficult to work in partnership.

Rubin, Rabinovich, Hallsworth and Nason (2006) also provide another policy that has been introduced to reduce crime through the use of personality traits and crimes. The use of the 1999 Youth Justice and Criminal Evidence Act in the UK, which introduced the referral orders that were to apply to children of 10 to 17 years who had been convicted of a crime for the first time. The offender is brought before the Youth Justice Board (TJB) where the process of restorative justice is conducted on the offender to reduce reoffendinhg. The interest of application of restorative justice was growing in the United States during this period. The evaluation of the initiative revealed that 75 percent of the cases handled through referral orders.

Strengths and Weaknesses of Life Course Theory

This theory consolidates psychological, biological and socio-psychological perspective into the discipline of criminology, so as to explain the source of deviant and criminal behavior in a more elaborate manner. The crime is not committed randomly and is executed by a small group of individuals who have disruptive behaviors from during childhood. The life course theory has the potentiality of offering a proactive approach to criminals and crime (Gozubenli and Unal, 2014).

The life course theory has various advantages compared to the traditional theories. It emphasizes greater attention to the historical occurrences which have an impact on the life of a person and the social changes that affect human behavior hence personality traits. This theory attends to psychological, social and biological processes which evolve around the timing of lives. It shows the relationship between lives at the early childhood and adulthood, and also spot the intergenerational relationship. It also gives attention to humanitarian agencies and acknowledge that individuals have the strength and capacity to change. The theory has the potentiality of explaining the risk factors of committing crimes, which can help in designing preventive mechanisms that will help in reducing criminality.

Even though heterogeneity and diversity are the greatest strengths of the theory, heterogeneity can be a big challenge. The theory concentrates on the human behavior’s patterns. The current heterogeneity level in nations such as the US may make the discerning patterns impossible. The theory may perhaps divert its thinking from patterns to processes and mechanisms. The life course theory was developed after a study that was not considered diverse at the global level. Another disadvantage is that it fails to adequately link family lives and micro world of people to the macro world of formal organization and social institutions.

Validity of the Life Course Theory

The validity of this theory was tested through a studies by Sampson and Laub, who conducted a research that was longitudinal in nature, where they followed the respondents for a long period to determine the validity of the theory. The goal of the study was to prove that in life there are essential turning points or trajectories which have a huge influence on determining the risk of criminal personality. The assumptions developed is that continuity in the life course is affected by nurture. Individuals undergo various passages where the social contract affects the life of the individuals. Some social institutions such as schools and families play a vital role in the development of the life of a person. In cases where the social institution is faced with challenges such as when the child’s parent is incarcerated, there is a higher risk of the child developing criminal personality in theory of the life course. Therefore, the use of rehabilitative strategies to deal with the problem is a favorable means of restoring and reconnecting the potential offenders back to the social institutions, and eventually make them honorable citizens (Sampson & Laub, 2005).

Conclusion

Life course theory state that people develop criminal behavior in the course of their life. It states that personality traits that are favorable to crime are developed from early childhood, then they are continued or changed over the life development. Researches conducted reveal that there exist a relationship between personality traits and crime. Some personality traits adopted during childhood have a significant influence on future criminality. Certain personalities such as aggression, low levels of conscientiousness, agreeableness and openness and higher scores of extraversion are related to deviance, hence have a higher probability of developing criminal behavior in the future such as drunkenness, antisocial behavior and burglary among others. However, the theory is faced with certain limitations where it is believed that it neglects gender in the study and also fail to explain the accuracy of the information collected since some people may underestimate their deviant behaviors. The theory has also been relevant in the criminal justice system, where it is used to design strategies of interventions that can be used to reduce future criminality. The theory has also been applied in the formulation of certain policies that target to solve the problem of crime in the society.

References

American Psychiatric Association. (1994). Diagnostic and statistical manual of. Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Association.

Caspi, A., & Brent, W. (2003). Personality continuity and change in the life course. In A. Caspi, & W. Brent, Interface with other fields (pp. 300-326). London: Institute of Psychiatry University of London.

Farrington, D. (2002). Developmental criminology and risk focused prevention. In M. Maguire, R. Morgan, & R. Reiner, The Oxford handbook of criminology (pp. 657-701). Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Farrington, D. P. (1998). Predictors, causes, and correlates of male youth violence. Crime and Justice, Vol 24, 421-465.

Florida Department of Education. (2003). Juvenile justice educational enhancement program. Florida: Florida Department of Education.

Gozubenli, M., & Unal, M. (2014). Life course crime theories and their contribution to the criminology field. European Scientific Journal, Vol 10. No. 29, 1-9.

Kamaluddin, M. R., Shariff, N., & Othman, A. A. (2015). Linking psychological traits with criminal behavior: A review. ASEAN Journal of Psychiatry, Vol 16 (2), 1-13.

Krueger, R. F., Schmutte, P. S., Caspi, A., Moffitt, T. E., Campbell, K., & Silvia, P. A. (1994). Personality traits are linked to crime among men and women evidence from a birth cohort. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, Vol 103, 328-338.

Listwan, S. J. (2001). Personality and criminal behavior: Reconsidering the individual. Cincinnati: Divisoon of Research and Advanced Studies.

Roft, L., & Marc, B. L. (1990). Toward a developmental criminology. In M. Tonry, & N. Morris, Crime and justice: A review of research (pp. 375-473). Chicago: University of Chicago Press.

Rubin, J., Rabinovich, L., Hallsworth, M., & Nason, E. (2006). Interventions to reduce antisocial behavior and crime. United Kingdom: RAND Corporation.

Sampson, R., & Laub, J. (2005). A life-course view of the development of crime. Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, 12- 45.