The Importance of Science in Rhetoric Analysis

Rhetorical critique has many functions, including teaching the listener and assisting them in formulating or enhancing their taste in rhetorical contexts. Furthermore, rhetorical critique helps to make the public stronger judges of rhetorical scenarios by reinforcing appropriate concepts that are both useful and morally reasonable. Several studies of current modes of rhetoric have been conducted in order to increase public comprehension of the rhetorics and the functions they represent. Ellul, Jaques, in his essay “The Characteristics of Propaganda,” (1965), walks the reader through the various forms of propaganda by discussing its external and internal attributes in depth. The article presents the audience with the tools that they can use to understand all forms of propaganda and their effectiveness in achieving the set goals. In the same way, Bogost Ian in the essay titled, “The Rhetoric of Video Games,” (2014), takes the audience through an understanding of the rhetoric’s of video games by delving into more than just the play to the functions the games perform in the minds and lives of the players. What comes out of the two articles mentioned here is that rhetorics are often not what they seem to be on the face value that is why there is a need for such analyses as conducted by Ellul and Bogost to improve the audience understanding. Analyzing rhetoric does not take a similar path as scientific studies, yet to understand new rhetoric, the critic has to explain the relationship between science and rhetoric. That means, in the absence of scientific research in psychology and sociology, the propagandist would not be able to generate propaganda. It, therefore, emerges that understanding the directions of rhetoric requires an understating of the methods of scientific research analysis.

The Modernism in Rhetoric

Both Ellul and Bogost approach their analyses from a modern perspective despite the fact that the articles were published approximately five decades apart. What was current for Ellul may not be the same for Bogost but knowing that rhetoric is an old art of discourse, the term ‘modern’ remains applicable depending on the topic of discussion. It is interesting to learn that rhetoric has undergone several transformations and neither has it been left out in the technological advancement. That is why Bogost can analyze the rhetoric’s of video games in the 21st century while Ellul has a better understanding of propaganda of the mid-19th century.

The two articles elucidate particular use of linguistic, symbols, material and visual in propaganda and video games to generate and maintain communities in current times. Ellul, for instance, describes the kind of propaganda discussed in his article as “True modern,” (3). The description is aimed at making the reader understand that there is a difference between the old propaganda and one of the contemporary times that is also linkable to the sciences. The new form of propaganda is primarily based on the scientific analysis of sociology and psychology that form the basis for the propagandists to build their techniques.

Rhetoric criticism generates knowledge as already mentioned in this paper. However the means of creating that knowledge is not scientific, yet understanding of scientific research enables the critic to help the public make better judgments of rhetorical situations. Ellul, Jacques asserts:

Modern propaganda is based on scientific analyses of psychology and sociology. Step by step, the propagandist builds his techniques on the basis of his knowledge of man, his tendencies, his desires, his needs, his psychic mechanisms, and his conditioning- and as much on social psychology as on depth psychology. (4)

The quote above shows just how rhetoricians of the modern times are dependent on scientific research to develop their content and that translates to the critics who must also have a solid understanding of the latest scientific research to be able to conduct rhetorical criticism successfully.

Bogost Ian, in the attempt to educate the public on the rhetoric of video game, presents several examples of the games and how they relate to the societal processes such as economics and social life. Through the interpretation of the author, it is evident that the video game makers have also utilized scientific research on sociology and psychology to develop games that will lead the mind and body to act from one step to another of the game. It, therefore, implies that the author also had to have a background of understanding scientific methods of obtaining knowledge to be able to analyze the rhetoric of video games. For example, the writer presents that the “Animal Crossing” game is created to show the user the relationship between space and the number of materials one requires to feel the space. In other words, whenever the player gets more space, he goes into debt to obtain more materials to fill the space, and if the player gets more materials, then he needs to get a bigger space that can accommodate the materials. According to Bogost Ian, the debt and acquisition link develops into a vicious cycle. What makes the author identify the vicious cycle is the application of scientific knowledge in interpreting the rhetoric of video games.

Bogost argues in the same way as Ellul regarding the rhetorician’s use of sociology and psychology research to identify means of creating a community of video games players. The creators of video games understand that players have unique values and culture that is why they identify themselves as “gamers” (Bogost, Ian).

The Rules of Contemporary Rhetoric

It is arguable that there is no particular method for critiquing rhetoric thus the analysis depends on the personality of the analyzer. However, the informative essays of the two authors whose works are discussed in this paper, show that current rhetoric is best explained by looking at the set of rules that the rhetoric’s put in place to achieve their purpose. Modern propaganda, for instance, has established rules that propagandist has to follow thus making own impulses of the propagandist contribute a small percentage of the whole propaganda (Ellul, Jacques). In other words, propagandist must apply some specified formulas to succeed, and any person who takes up training on the correct application of the methods can just make it as a successful propagandist.

The question that emerges from the knowledge in the previous paragraph is how then a critic can analyze modern propaganda without understanding the rules that define propaganda and the existing methods that must be followed for propaganda to fulfill its purpose? Ellul, Jacques, brings into light the importance of understanding the present scientific characteristics of propaganda made by critics of rhetoric for them to effectively educate and improve the judgment of the public regarding propaganda.

The same can be said of video games whereby, an understanding of the rules and formulas of video game developers is critical for the analysis of video game rhetoric. The rules imposed on video games are what make it possible for gamers to play. And that shows that the assumption that gaming is all leisure is misplaced, and instead, gaming is simply a free space movement in an even overly rigid structure (Bogost, Ian). The explanation presented by Ian shows that video gaming is not at all a liberal act, but it is the self-subjection to rules and regulations disguised as leisure. The difference between playing a video game and conducting a scientific research which involves some rules is the idea that playing is done during spare time. The creators of video games understand the psychology of human that they feel more comfortable in engaging in a game that has rules than that which has no rules. And for better presentation of this understanding to the audience, the rhetoric analysis ought to include the scientific aspects of the rhetoric.

Bogost, Ian compares the rules of video games to the genre constraints associated with traditional media such as poetry. The writer exemplifies the haiku poetic form which requires the use of three lines each with five, seven and five syllables. The constraint implies that an author interested in writing haiku must use language that meets the defined syllable arrangement for each of the three lines. In that regard, using rhetorical concepts such as ethos, kairos, and logos only to analyze haiku poem or to analyze video games is not enough. The understanding of rules, formulas and specific steps required for the making of the rhetoric is necessary.

It’s No longer About Talent

Rhetoric strategies in the modern times are not only dependent on the ability to create compelling pieces but also depend on the analysis of the environment. Scientific research is utilized to analyze the environment and the individual so as to create only what suits a specific audience. Modern propaganda is designed for a specific audience based on prior research on what works for that particular public. Thus one type of propaganda may be useful in a particular situation and become ineffective in another setting (Ellul, Jacques). Therefore, the propagandist must undertake training on how to craft the most effective propaganda for different audiences.

Unlike modern propaganda that is developed for a specific audience to perform a particular function, video games may not necessarily be created to expose ideology. However, some video games are designed with the specific purpose of informing the audience how a conceptual system operates (Bogost, Ian). In the interpretation talent and scientific analysis application in the rhetoric of video game, Bogost, Ian supposes that the political commentary and satire that may be included to criticize processes in the society may go alongside the function of explaining and supporting some means of achieving political or social goals. “These games use procedural rhetoric to make an argument, and players unpack that argument through play” (Bogost, Ian 130). The focus on explaining and supporting specific means of accomplishing life goals indicates that the production of that communication the form of the video game is not just a result of someone’s talent but also involves the application learned skills to develop content aimed at creating a particular community such as the gamer’s community.

Ellul, Jacques explains that modern propaganda does address the individual as part of the masses and not as one. And the propaganda does not just target the crowd but targets people found in those groups. What modern propaganda does is to exploit the individual’s desire for self-affirmation but reach the individual in the masses. The scientific analyses show that mass media facilitates this aspect of modern propaganda by reaching a mass audience at once while at the same time targeting individuals in the same mass audience. Thus for a better comprehension of how propaganda works in the contemporary world, the analyst has to have in-depth knowledge of how the mass media sets the social and political agendas for the audience, segments audiences and fulfils the individual desire for self-affirmation.

Rhetorical criticism in the modern times explores how rhetoric instance relates to circumstances and identifies the level of persuasion that a specific rhetoric offers. To investigate the rhetorical situation critics look at the human experience that is believed to be immeasurable. However, it turns out that explaining texts speeches and other creations today depends on the previous scientific analyses of related situations. For instance, Bogost Ian, argues that playing video games enhances literacy though not the kind of literacy that is helpful for reading books but that which enables the gaming community to critique the systems around them. The author’s conclusion must be based on the research done on the impact of video games on literacy to be able to identify that the games also serve the purpose of helping people make better judgments of situations they live in. According to Bogost Ian:

The kind of technology literacy that procedural rhetoric offers is becoming increasingly necessary for kids and adults alike. As more of our cultural attention moves from linear media like books and film to procedural, random access media like software and video games, we need to become better critics of the latter kind. (136)

What the author insinuates in the paragraph above is that technology presents new rhetoric strategies that require analysts to keep up with. Most of the current persuasion tactics depend on the psychology and sociology research findings.

Having the knowledge of technology and scientific methods used to develop modern rhetoric enables critics to tell how a rhetorical case constructs, persuades and defines the audience. The contemporary style of rhetoric analysis can be seen in the study of video game rhetoric by Bogost. For example, the critic tells that the increasing interest in video games as a cultural activity may call for the inclusion of game development course for computer science studies.

The Effects of Rhetoric

Rhetoric presents a platform for the development of arguments for specific situations. The modern rhetoric goes ahead to control the rhetoric used, measure the results and define the effects. The actions involved in modern rhetoric are comparable to scientific characteristics. Ellul, Jacques asserts that modern propagandists do not just get satisfied with the assumption that their propaganda has achieved its goal, they must look for precise evidence to prove that.

As has been mentioned in this paper, all the video game examples in the article by Bogost have some strict rules. The rules can be equated to the scientific research characteristic of control which ensures that the targeted audience plays the game within the definitions of the rules. And the impact of such games is measured by looking at what members of the gaming communities share on social media networks and the trends they follow. The traits are similar to those of the propagandist who carries out surveys to prove the impact of their rhetoric.

The explanation of the importance of science in understanding and interpreting rhetoric may be disputed that the steps involved are not entirely scientific and so there is no need for the analysts to gain knowledge of scientific processes before conducting critique. It may be true rhetoricians may not follow scientific formulas per se to make their creations. However, the relationship between science and all other fields is very close in the contemporary world. That is why it remains vital for the analysts to make a note of that if they have to present the public with credible criticism.

Conclusion

Modern rhetoricians have adopted new ways of making their work have the desired impact on the audience. Advancements in science and technology have seen the creators of rhetoric utilize scientific analyses and techniques to develop and gauge the impact of the messages they intend for the audience. It is evident from the articles written by the two authors discussed in this paper the making of rhetorical pieces and their analyses is cannot do away with scientific investigations today.

Works Cited

Bogost, Ian. “The Rhetoric of Video Games.” The Ecology of Games: Connecting Youth, Games, and Learning. Edited by Katie Salen. The John D. and Catherine T. MacArthur Foundation Series on Digital Media and Learning. Cambridge, MA: The MIT Press, 2008. 117–140. doi: 10.1162/dmal.9780262693646.117

Ellul, Jacques. “The Characteristics of Propaganda” from Propaganda. Ed. Konrad Kellen and Jean Lerner. Vintage Books, 1965. 3-43.