The History of Sports

Sports have perhaps been the most popular form of human recreation since ages ago. The history of sports is as old as humankind. Coakley notes that it would, therefore, be an abstract proposition to think that one would conclusively jot down the rich history of sports in a brief summary. To gain real insight, one would have to dig through a lot of history books and explore every corner and township throughout the whole world. The scope of sports makes it difficult to point out any one single day when one would authoritatively conclude that indeed, this was the D-day in the world of sports. Coakley notes that the earliest history of sports probably entailed training for military purposes or hunting purposes. Prehistoric art has been known to depict hunters, but even then, historians are not sure if indeed, the pursuit of prey during hunting was actually as a matter of necessity or whether it involved the joyful abandon associated with sports. As a preamble, it is worth noting that, even in the prehistoric time, there is documented evidence of what seemed like sporting activities and this indeed depicts the deep and rich history of sports. For instance, Booth writes of paintings depicting wrestling and splinting in the Old Stone Age that were found in Lascaux caves in France. Another example is the evidence of swimming and archery around 5000BCE which is documented in the Neolithic Rock Art of Gilf Kebir (Booth).  However, the true spirit of ancient sporting which is recognized far and wide must have begun with the introduction of the ancient Olympic Games in Greece. According to the Greek traditions, the first Olympic Games are dated back to 776 BCE although historians believe that the games started much earlier than the documented time (Kidd). Of note about these games, and the focus of this paper is that these games were held in honor of the Greek gods. That said, these Olympian Games were indeed as much of a religious ceremony as they were an athletic event.

Sports were a constituent of the overall education of a man in Ancient Greece. Games really enthralled the Greeks for they believed that in noble competition and effortd, their mental, physical and intellectual faculties were cultivated in a balanced and harmonious way (Martin). Games were an integral part of their lives, a cultural and religious practice, and a way of life. The social and cultural highlight of the calendar among Ancient Greeks was the Olympic Games. These games were held once every four years for almost twelve centuries since 776 BCE to 393 AD (Finley and Pleket). Finley and Pleket write that this four year period was referred to as the ‘Olympiad.’ The importance of this was that in late antiquity, time was counted in Olympiads. Seemingly, so important were these games that they were even used as a basis for the calendar besides bearing religious significance as will be explored below. Eventually, when Romans conquered Greece, and Christianity dominated within Greece, Phillips and Pritchard note that the games were banned by the then Roman emperor, Emperor Theodosius. This is because the Romans thought that the games were sacrilegious.

Valavanis, as well as Phillips and Pritchard, write that these ancient Olympic Games involved a couple of athletic competitions among athletes representing different city-states and kingdoms of ancient Greece. They were part of four separate games (the Panhellenic games) which were introduced later and were organized at other sacred sites in different cities. These games included Pythian, Isthmian and Nemean Games. The Olympian Games, however, still remained the most prestigious and biggest sports event in the Greek calendar. Importantly, these games were dedicated to Zeus. According to Greek mythology, Zeus was considered the supreme god, the king of the gods. Kidd notes that the growing success of the games further intensified the beliefs in the divinity of the mythological origins of the games. In fact, some people actually believed that the gods were present or participating in the games! This could partly explain the sanctity within which these games were conducted so as to please the gods.

Legend has it that the Heracles founded the games in Olympia. Heracles was the son of Zeus and Alcmene. Heracles is said to have organized the games in honor of Zeus who had helped him to conquer the kingdom of Elis after his fight with the then reigning king, king Augeas (Finley and Pleket). Since the games bore a primarily religious character, they were held at a sacred site, at the green plains of Olympia. This site is located at the western part of the Peloponnese. Elaborate shrines, imposing temples among other religious sites dominated this place. Valavanis noted that Olympia was mostly a site of worship and other religious and political practices besides hosting the old sporting facilities. Much of the site was dedicated to Zeus. A huge statue of Zeus stood in the in the Temple of Zeus. This statue is in fact listed among the seven wonders of the ancient world. The central part of Olympia had a large temple that belonged to Zeus while just alongside lay Hera’s temple. Hera was Zeus wife. Olympia was also home to an oracle to Zeus and who was considered as one of Greece’s most celebrated oracle. The ash left over from the sacrificed oxen was heaped together into a bonfire heap to form an altar for the Oracle. Indeed, Olympia was at the core of Greek civilization. Additionally, it was able to promote the ideals of a holy place that were required to please the Greek gods.

The Greeks were nonetheless mostly polytheistic as noted in Valavanis’ text. This means that although Olympia was considered as Zeus’ sanctuary, in the real sense, Zeus was not the only deity worshipped at the site. Valavanis reports that there were hundreds of altars at Olympia meaning that people could sacrifice to pretty much the god they worshipped. Nevertheless, it should be noted as mentioned before that the games were held in honor of Zeus and celebration of the athleticism of the winners while also bringing recognition to their city-states. For instance, Phillips and Pritchard note that, on the third day of the Olympian Games, 100 oxen would be sacrificed at the altar Of Zeus and offered as a burnt sacrifice in honor of Zeus or what is usually referred to as hecatomb. This grand sacrifice was the most important religious ceremony of the event. Interestingly, during this noble sacrifice, the averter of flies, or “Zeus the Apomyius” as referred to in the Greek mythology would be invoked so as to keep the meet free from flies. As the sacrifices burnt, Phillips and Pritchard further note that the oracle would be consulted to predict the future based on the interpretation of what he saw. Competitors would also ask the Oracle to prophesy their chances of victory. Indeed, the foundation of these games was deeply rooted in religion.

Ancient Greece was barely peaceful. The city-states were often at war with another. For instance, Martin recounted that ancient Athens and Sparta were known for the Peloponnesian War (431–404 BCE) in which the ancient Athens was forced to dismantle its empire when Sparta won. These constant wars posed severe challenges to the games if the games were to happen successfully. It is to be remembered that spectators, as well as participants from various city-states, had to travel to Olympia for the games, and the constant wars would have hindered this. As a result, in light of the religious significance of the games, a sacred Olympic truce was usually enacted to allow safe travel of athletes and visitors to and from the games (Finley and Pleket; Phillips and Pritchard; Young). Initially, truce lasted for one month although it was extended to three months in later centuries. During the ceasefire, the whole of Elis and the sanctuary at Olympia were declared inviolable and sacred. As such, messengers were sent from Elis to publicize the coming of the games and also, to announce the start of truce. Armies or even their arms were forbidden from getting into the territory of Elis and the sanctuary of Olympia within this truce period. Legal disputes as well retribution by death sentence were prohibited within this period. Drastic measures were taken against any people who violated the requisites of the truce period. For instance, Thucydides an ancient Athenian historian recounted a case in point when Sparta was fined and barred from participating in the games for fighting with the Athenians during the truce period (Martin; Phillips and Pritchard; Young). Nonetheless, the Olympic truce was observed for the most part. Honestly, the Greeks must have had great reverence for their gods.

For a long time, there was only one gaming event – the ‘stadion’ foot race. Young notes that it was the only event for the first dozen or so Olympics and remained the most prestigious event in the history of the Olympic Games. The race entailed running one length of the ‘stadion’ which was around 210 meters. This distance corresponded to the distance of the stadium track. Preliminary heats were held, and the heat winners were allowed to proceed to the finals. The final winner of the ‘stadion’ foot race would give his name to the Olympic Games of that particular season and would thus be remembered for many ages to come. From 724 BC onwards, Finley and Pleket, as well as Young, write that more games events were introduced and added onto the itinerary of the Olympic Games period. The games’ events were broadly the Equestrian and the Pentathlon events. Chariot racing and horse riding were perhaps the most popular Equestrian events. They usually took place in a vast, flat, open space or what is known as the Hippodrome.

The Pentathlon included several games. These involve running – the ‘stadion’ foot race, the diaulos (2 stades or 400 metres race) and the dolichos (ranged from 7-24 stadium lengths); jumping, discus throw, the combat events (wrestling, boxing and the pankration), and javelin (Finley and Pleket; Phillips and Pritchard; Valvanis; Young).  Other than the prestigious ‘stadion’ foot race, the rest of the games were introduced at different times. Although all of the games must have held some religious significance in one way or the other, the pankration deserves a special mention. Phillips and Pritchard noted that this primitive form of martial arts which combined boxing and wrestling was thought to have been started by a Greek demi-god, Theseus when he found his way through a labyrinth and in the process, killed the mythical monster Minotaur. The pentathlon events, as well as the different races, were held within the stadium. According to Phillips and Pritchard, the events programmer was as follows. The first day was usually reserved for running and field events.  The second day was reserved for the equestrian events while the combat sports were held on the fourth day. The first and fifth day were also generally reserved for ceremonies and sacrifices although different historical records write that the grand sacrifice was held on the third day. Nevertheless, while sports might have been the most enthralling activity within the Olympic Games period, at the very foundation of it all was the religious activities which were meant to please the Greek gods.

Initially, the games were a one-day event. As the number of games increased, the number of days was also extended to three days by 684 BC. Eventually, the games were extended to cover five days from 472 BC onwards as Young recounts. To emphasize the piety associated with the games, Valvanis notes that, two days out of the five days were explicitly reserved for the religious festivals leaving three days for the events of the game. Phillips and Pritchard noted that the athletes for the respective competitions were supposed to arrive at Olympia one month before the official commencement of the games period. This was for purposes of intensive training before holding the games officially. Here, the athletes would train under the full watch of trainers. Also, the athletes had to declare that they had been preparing for at least ten months before. The Olympic Games were held in such high religious regard that, besides those individuals who had not dutifully obeyed the Olympic truce, individuals who had a prior history of defiling the temple were also not allowed to participate in the games. Non-Greeks were also not allowed to compete. Married women could not participate in the games nor watch them. Failure to observe this rule was punishable through a death sentence. However, since they (women) were allowed to own chariots or even individual horses, they could therefore passively participate in equestrian events as the owners of the horses or chariots and win victory in that way (Phillips and Pritchard). This is because it was the owner of the horse or chariot who won the prize. Young noted that some historical records report that later on, besides the Olympic Games, Olympia also organized a series of athletic activities for women or Heraia every Olympiad in honor of the mythological goddess Hera (wife to Zeus).

The games were originally held on the fields around the temple of Zeus in Olympia. However, as the success of the games continued to grow and numbers increased, so was the need to build a more expansive stadium. While it is not known how many spectators were present at any particular game, it is however known that the ancient Olympia had a stadium that could host approximately 40,000 spectators (Valvanis). The competitions usually started with a procession that began from Elis, the host town, to Olympia. Judges who were drawn from Elis led the march. During the opening ceremony, the athletes walked in in a single row, one by one and completely naked.  A scared herald would then introduce them by their name, their father’s name, and their city-state. Afterward, they, together with the judges would take an oath to obey the rules of the game right in front of the statue of Zeus. Cheating or attempting to give or accept bribes during the contest was a grave offense as it was considered that those involved had very little respect for the god of Olympia. And indeed, the Greeks were so loyal to their gods that the rules were rarely broken. If anyone broke the rules, penalties included imposing of fine or even exclusion from participation. Money exacted from imposed fines was used to make Zanes – the bronze statue of the god Zeus (Phillips and Pritchard; Valvanis). Evidently, everything about the games was solely meant to please the Greek gods.

The last day of the games was meant for honoring the victorious athletes. The victory crown consisted of a wreath of wild olive leaves and an olive branch. The thinking behind this was that it was an emulation of what Herakles was given when he ran the first race in Olympia with his brothers. Legend also has it that the olive trees at Olympia held religious significance because they were planted by Herakles (Valvanis). Other prizes included a red woolen ribbon that was worn around the head or on the upper arm. Additionally, to commemorate their victory, the victors were allowed to put up personal statues inside the sanctuary as Young notes. The statues conferred historical immortality to these athletes. These bases of the statues were inscribed with a dedication to a god besides other inscriptions. Again, this depicts that religion was the very foundation of these games. These athletes were often given a hero’s welcome back at their homelands. Their feats were praised enthusiastically in poems and sculptures. Indeed, it was a sight to behold.

In a nutshell, it is indubitable that, from the mythological origins of the Olympian Games to the actual competitions, the contests were all about honoring their Greek gods. The duty to attend or participate in the games was indeed a duty duly served to the gods. Besides, the games unified the Greeks and conferred a sense of national pride among the Greeks. Indeed, although the games were a celebration of life and vitality, of more importance was the worship of the Greek gods for these games had their roots in religion.

Works Cited

Booth, Douglas. The field: Truth and fiction in sports history. Routledge, 2007.

Coakley, Jay. Sports in society: Issues and controversies. McGraw-Hill Higher Education, 2014.

Finley, Moses I., and Henri Willy Pleket. The Olympic Games: the first thousand years. Courier Corporation, 2012.

Kidd, Bruce. ”The myth of the ancient Games.“ Sport in Society 16.4 (2013): 416-424.

Martin, Thomas R. Ancient Greece: from prehistoric to Hellenistic times. Yale University Press, 2013.

Phillips, David J., and David Pritchard, eds. Sport and festival in the ancient Greek world. Oakville, CT: Classical Press of Wales, 2003.

Valavanis, Panos. Games and Sanctuaries in Ancient Greece: Olympia, Delphi, Isthmia, Nemea, Athens. Los Angeles, CA: J. Paul Getty Museum, 2004.

Young, David C. A brief history of the Olympic Games. John Wiley & Sons, 2008.