Aggression and Sex Differences

Human sex differences have been studied in a variety of fields. In humans, for example, the genetic sexual category is characterized by five elements available during birth: gonad type, presence or lack of a ’Y chromosome,’ internal reproductive anatomy, external genitalia, and sex hormones. Aggression, on the other hand, refers to an overt social engagement with the intent of inflicting injury or other repulsiveness on another person. Aggression can manifest itself in retaliation or in the lack of provocation. In humans, dissatisfaction over obstructed goals can lead to hostility.However, human hostility can be categorized into indirect and direct aggression, whereas the direct violent behavior is characterized by verbal or physical actions intended to cause harm to a certain person. The other form of violence is categorized by the target of tampering with social interactions of a group or an individual. Moreover, the term aggression is also used in the behavioral sciences and social science, and it refers to reactions by people aiming at causing something disagreeable to others. Some descriptions suggest people must have intentions to harm others for the scene to be termed as an aggression. Defensive action or predatory amid members of varying species cannot be considered as an aggression (Jang, Kawachi, Chang, Boo, Shin, Lee & Cho, 2009).

Indeed, aggression can take different forms that are showed physically or communicated orally or non-verbally: including defensive aggression, anti-predator aggression, dominance aggression, grasping aggression, resident-intruder aggression, inter-male aggression, species-specific rivalry, maternal aggression, territorial aggression, sex-related aggression, irritable aggression, isolation-induced hostility, and brain-stimulated aggression. Additionally, there are two subtypes of human violence that are, reactive –impulsive aggression, always draws uncontrollable activities that are undesirable and inappropriate; and restricted-instrumental subtype. Otherwise, aggression varies from assertiveness, though violation terminology is mostly applied interchangeably amid laypeople. However, aggression can also be found in business where one party becomes aggressive to outperform the other.

Annotated Bibliographies

Jang, S. N., Kawachi, I., Chang, J., Boo, K., Shin, H. G., Lee, H., & Cho, S. I. (2009). Marital status, gender, and depression: analysis of the baseline survey of the Korean Longitudinal Study of Ageing (KLoSA). Social science & medicine, 69(11), 1608-1615.

Subjects

This article contains investigations about the pressure of marital position on depressive symptoms in Koreans’ older adult. The individuals who participated in this research included 5003 women and 4016 men and they were between 45-85 years.

Measures and Procedures

The depressive signs were evaluated using 10-item Center for Epidemiological Studies-Depression weighing machine. Similarly, various regression models were applied to determine the link amid marital status and living arrangement, depressive signs, socioeconomic status’ control, disability as well as different chronic illnesses.

Results

Results indicated that women ranging between 75-85 years, were having no significant variations with the ladies who married and also those who were separated, divorced, or widowed based on depressive signs. However, the work emerged not to offer any value for depressive symptoms amid older women and men. Otherwise, the context has confirmed heightened depression symptoms among older recruited men and the discrepancy connection of employment status with gender and age in the view of Korean social culture. These results were driven by rising depressive signs amid married women with times. While widowed and divorced men in the sample showed heightened rates of depressive signs that married men, the distinction occurring on divorced/widowed ladies versus married women and life stage can indicate the typical pressure of the Asian view on interactions between women and men, such as patriarchal customs and traditional gender roles for the older generation. Based on the above information, it is clear that women are showing higher rates of aggression as compared to men. However, the strength of this article is that it has shown causes of depression on married individuals though it has failed to include youths (Jang, Kawachi, Chang, Boo, Shin, Lee & Cho, 2009).

GUO, B., & HUANG, J. (2005). Marital and sexual satisfaction in Chinese families: Exploring the moderating effects. Journal of sex & marital therapy, 31(1), 21-29.

Subjects

This research involved total samples of 423 participants from China. These samples were gathered from different states within the nation through convenient sampling. Of the 423 participants, there were 284 women and 139 men and majority of respondents fall in the age group amid 21-50 years.

Measures and Procedures

The respondents who collected from varying states within the nation based on convenient sampling. The research was focused on analyzing the interaction between sexual satisfaction and marital satisfaction in Chinese families. However, there was used a hierarchical multiple regression that employed data gathered from 1993 China Housing Survey.

Results

Based on this research, it was found that sexual satisfaction is having a substantial implication on marital contentment. At this point, it was noted that effects of sexual satisfaction are restrained by education and gender. This evaluation suggests that marriage psychotherapy, with a stress on promoting know-how about sexual quality, is essential for determining marital challenges affecting Chinese families. Moreover, this study has also proven that there is a momentous difference in marital satisfaction with regard to marriage’s length, spouse income and income by its own. The counselors handling married couples can opt to strengthen their effectiveness through understanding the stress, expectations and the nature of the demand encountered by married couples that can act as a barrier to attaining marital satisfaction. This is essential since lots of counselor’s approaches, strategies and responses can depend on their acceptance of customer’s situation based on those expectations and demands. Because spouse support is essential in contributing to the marriage satisfaction and life, it is likely essential for marriage counselors to motivate interaction and support amid wives and husbands. In the view aggression, this article is indicating that women are more angered when they lack support from the men (GUO & HUANG, 2005). Otherwise, the strength of this article is that it has provided detailed marital satisfaction information about married couples, but the authors have shown weaknesses on failing to discuss separated couples.

Oshio, T., Nozaki, K., & Kobayashi, M. (2013). Division of household labor and marital satisfaction in China, Japan, and Korea. Journal of Family and Economic Issues, 34(2), 211-223.

Subjects

The research was done on for countries including China, Japan, Taiwan, and Korea and their sample sizes were 3208, 2130, 2102 and 1605 respectively.

Measures and Procedures

This research employed a single-item dependent variable for marital pleasure. This variable was established to determine various issues including a description of marriage, and also detecting the level of satisfaction within the marriage.

Results

The results of this research indicate that Chinese couples were comparatively in favor of a democratic segmentation of household labor. Indeed, these families were supporting traditional specialization where ladies were flexible shifting their efforts amid operating outside the house. Korean couples appeared to be pressured by rivalries between the women’s labor force participation and the customary labor division. These findings devalued the need of social-institutional context in the evaluation of marital satisfaction. However, this research has also noted an increase in demographic, political, and economic transformations in East Asia, a condition motivated by urbanization, industrialization, and closer incorporation into global markets. These changes have led to women’s employment and educational opportunities, though the gendered separation of labor remains unchanged. On the other hand, the study has found that in western nations, unequal housework’s share is reducing marital satisfaction, and the negative interaction is stronger in nations with unrestricted gender practices, particularly those having cultural beliefs which their spouses should evenly share family roles and work. This article has identified that men are not in support of contribution of women on undertaking various roles outside the household (Oshio, Nozaki & Kobayashi, 2013). The strength of this article is that it has provided a comprehensive understanding of marital satisfaction in these four nations. However, the researcher’s weakness is found where the context seems being biased since it is not offering women’s views on men participating in various daily activities.

Bryant, C. M., Taylor, R. J., Lincoln, K. D., Chatters, L. M., & Jackson, J. S. (2008). Marital satisfaction among African Americans and Black Caribbeans: Findings from the national survey of American life. Family Relations, 57(2), 239-253.

Subjects

The authors of this article have examined the correlations of marital satisfaction through applying data from a national probability of 560 Black Caribbeans and 962 African American.

Measures and Procedures

The data gathering on this research was approved by National Institute of Mental Health (NIMH) and it also had supplemental reinforcement from the Office of Behavioral and Social Science Research located at the University of Michigan and National Institute of Health. Moreover, the preparation of this text was also supported by Human Development and National Institute of Child Health. All these organizations carried a vital role of ensuring that the participants have filled their questionnaires as well as taking place on face to face interactions.

Results

The study has indicated that the culture and race are undertaking an essential role in determining marital attitudes and behaviors, and also on shaping marriage opportunities. For instance, Black women are viewed to face noteworthy structural restriction in their marriage. In particular, the small pool of entitled Black men and financial restrictions on marriage are often discussed in the literature based on the Black marriage rates and the intact quality of marital interactions. These factors are connected in that the deficiency of Black men is considered to negatively affect the quality of relationships. Indeed, if men are less, then they get less committed to any specified interaction. This research has indicated that majority of black men do not support the act of wives participating in economic-related activities. However, this research is not collective since it has not included views unmarried individuals or couples as well as women’ viewpoints concerning the participation of their husbands on fiscal activities (Bryant, Taylor, Lincoln, Chatters & Jackson, 2008).

Cutrona, C. E., Russell, D. W., Abraham, W. T., Gardner, K. A., Melby, J. N., Bryant, C., & Conger, R. D. (2003). Neighborhood context and financial strain as predictors of marital interaction and marital quality in African American couples. Personal Relationships, 10(3), 389-409.

Subjects

The individuals who got in this study were retrieved from a larger sample containing 897 families who were participated in the Family and Community Health Research, that is, a large-scale exploration of African American families that was carried out in Georgia and Iowa. During the current study, there was picked families from the bigger sample that were led by 322 married couples. There were recruited 233 husbands to take place in the research.

Measures and Procedures

All participants were provided with questionnaires as well as observational data. All interviewers were from African America group and the majority of them were staying in or near the societies where the research was undertaken. Data gathering entailed questionnaire paperwork as well as video-recording evaluation concerning the marital relationship. Interaction assessments and interviews were carried out in contributors’ homes, or, else the family could decide to be in a suitable location near their home, for example, church, school or library.

Results

Dissimilar to forecast, neighborhood-level monetary disadvantages was not significantly linked with the level of aggression. This view indicates that warmth can be somewhat more susceptible to ecological influences as compared to hostility, though this proposition remains hesitant until it has been duplicated in other models. Notably, both hostility and warmth were evaluated based on discussion task instead of context conflict regulation role. The findings propose that family pecuniary strains have an implication on the quality of marriages in the African American society. However, the interferences designed to fortify marriages are not supposed to ignore the need for economic wellbeing. The strength of this article is that it has provided an inclusive analysis about marital satisfaction and African American marriages. However, the weakness of this article is that the census data, on which the evaluation of neighborhood economic disadvantage is depending on a single community, hence it can give inaccurate results (Cutrona, Russell, Abraham, Gardner, Melby, Bryant & Conger, 2003).

Ng, K. M., Loy, J. T. C., Gudmunson, C. G., & Cheong, W. (2009). Gender differences in marital and life satisfaction among Chinese Malaysians. Sex Roles, 60(1-2), 33-43.

Subjects

This research has evaluated gender differences in marital and life satisfaction within a convenience sample of 425 Chinese Malaysian participants, that is, women (59%) and men (41%).

Measures and Procedures

This research is a portion of the larger project that tackled family interaction’s quality and its connections to women’s maternal, agency as well as child health. The field work was finished by the dramatist in Pariwarbast at Darjeeling region in May 2008 and it had started in September 2007. This author was meeting participants face to face where he collected information concerning marital satisfaction through using questionnaires. However, the results of this study were to be discussed based on the context of Chinese Malaysian culture and MANCOVA was used to making a necessary evaluation.

Results

The MANCOVA showed that men were reporting increased levels of marital satisfaction as compared to ladies, while gender distinctions in life pleasure were not discovered. However, hierarchical regression scrutiny indicated that marital satisfaction is considerably predicting life fulfillment for both males and females, though the influence was bigger in ladies. Otherwise, the findings showed there is a widespread belief among respondents that love is the origin of a good relationship. This concept of conceives internal feelings that are manifested in the visible course. Similarly, taking care of each other is the core way to which spouses indicates their love and also attains affection from their lovers. Correspondingly, the concepts of the means into which wives and husbands should relate are falling on gender lines. Based on these findings, it is clear that men are showing lots of aggression than women as far as the marital relationship is concerned. The weakness of this article is that it has not offered a collective explanation about marital satisfaction based on gender and age. However, the author has provided a comprehensive understanding of marital satisfaction without getting biased (Ng, Loy, Gudmunson & Cheong, 2009).

Summary and Conclusions

While summing up, human aggression may be categorized into indirect or direct aggression, whereas the direct classification stands for verbal or physical behavior aimed at causing irritation to someone. The indirect category is the one typified by an act intended at harming social interactions of group or individuals. As we have seen in the above articles, aggression mat take various forms, which can be expressed bodily, or conversed orally or non-verbally. However, based on the above information, the researchers have pointed out that in most cases males are more aggressive as compared to wives as far as marital satisfactions are concerned. However, aggression in marital satisfaction is differing from nation to nation and from a single community to the other. For instance, the study about depression in marital satisfaction in Korea has indicated that women are showing higher rates of aggression as compared to men. Similarly, the study conducted in Chinese communities has shown that women are more angered for lacking support from men particularly on issues concerning venturing into different undertakes that do not include household tasks. Indeed, it is like men don’t support the instances where their wives ventures into economic activities since they want to sustain their dominance as the breadwinners within their families. Despite females emerging victims of aggression, black men are standing at the front-line on ensuring that their wives are not participating in anything which can give them supremacy (Jang, Kawachi, Chang, Boo, Shin, Lee & Cho, 2009). For instance, it is found that ladies married by Black Americans and Black Africans are angered by hostility they encounter from their lovers. Indeed, this ill-treatment is based on the fact that black women are considered inferior based on cultural practices and norms practiced within the society.

References

Bryant, C. M., Taylor, R. J., Lincoln, K. D., Chatters, L. M., & Jackson, J. S. (2008). Marital satisfaction among African Americans and Black Caribbeans: Findings from the national survey of American life. Family Relations, 57(2), 239-253.

Cutrona, C. E., Russell, D. W., Abraham, W. T., Gardner, K. A., Melby, J. N., Bryant, C., & Conger, R. D. (2003). Neighborhood context and financial strain as predictors of marital interaction and marital quality in African American couples. Personal Relationships, 10(3), 389-409.

GUO, B., & HUANG, J. (2005). Marital and sexual satisfaction in Chinese families: Exploring the moderating effects. Journal of sex & marital therapy, 31(1), 21-29.

Jang, S. N., Kawachi, I., Chang, J., Boo, K., Shin, H. G., Lee, H., & Cho, S. I. (2009). Marital status, gender, and depression: analysis of the baseline survey of the Korean Longitudinal Study of Ageing (KLoSA). Social science & medicine, 69(11), 1608-1615.

Ng, K. M., Loy, J. T. C., Gudmunson, C. G., & Cheong, W. (2009). Gender differences in marital and life satisfaction among Chinese Malaysians. Sex Roles, 60(1-2), 33-43.

Oshio, T., Nozaki, K., & Kobayashi, M. (2013). Division of household labor and marital satisfaction in China, Japan, and Korea. Journal of Family and Economic Issues, 34(2), 211-223.