About Sustainable Ways of Treating Substance Abuse

The paper discusses some of the existing metrics for treating substance use addiction, as well as the best ways that enable such treatments. Substance abuse is a major socioeconomic problem that affects almost every country. The research specifically examines what experts have to say regarding 12-step involvement and Deep Brain Stimulation (DBS) techniques for recovering addicts. The former is regarded as a useful procedure for use when the client does not like invasive methods. The latter is an intrusive procedure that is promising but still in the early stages of development. The paper also looks at how additional support such as follow-up telephone calls and motivation can affect the quality of treatment. Additionally, the paper looks at the significance of different approaches including the differences in results when treating deaf as well as the importance of housing the homeless treatment-seekers. Overall, the paper finds that treating people who are addicted to substance use is possible and that different methods can work. Additionally, the review finds that making follow-up procedures, housing the homeless substance use addicts, providing a supportive living environment, motivating clients, and boosting self-ego can add to the effectiveness of the intervention programs

Introduction

Drug addiction is a major public health issue that costs the USA a lot of billions annually. In the year 2016, New York Times reported a government expenditure of about $468 billion in regards to drug issues in the US - over 29 million Americans were admitted for drug addiction and abuse at a direct service cost of $ 79 billion. Substance abuse and addition pose significant consequences in the society including increase in crime rates, child abuse, hospitalizations, child neglect, and are quickly exhausting money meant for public development and infrastructure. The intravenous substance abuser is one of the fastest-growing HIV virus vectors, which is problematic. Efforts meant to contain the situation are consequential in determining how a society’s will prosper. The ensuing discussion looks at some of the treatment processes available while seeking to understand strategies that constitute sustainable and long-term treatment methods. The paper will seek to understand the range of treatment alternatives available to a victim. It will also look at what constitutes long-term sustainable remediation methodologies that are cost-effective and that can be recommended. Finally, the paper will look at what can be done in the future by research experts to better understand the situation under investigation.

Literature Review and Integration

12-Step Involvement Program

The 12-step sponsorship effect has been a center of the debate concerning the program’s adequateness in combating substance abuse. So far, it has been proven that the approach mentioned above fails to generate significant alterations in the proportion of patients under recovery system overtime. Rynes and Tonigan (2012) have attempted to explain the change in rehabilitating victim’s social networks as time goes by while being involved in the 12-step program. The study involved 115 adults who had previously undergone rehabilitation exercises. A test was administered to the group mentioned above to find out if there was any change in abstinence-based communities that the individuals having sponsors frequented. The paper hypothesized that unless the social circles that one engages in alter the active addiction to that of being in recovery, the chances of a victim rehabilitating successfully are remote. The findings showed that the probable relation between abstinence and sponsorship programs was not explained by increases in abstinence-founded social networks. According to Denis et al. (2013), there is the need for future research initiatives to apply more accurate and time-lagged methodologies to evaluate the role of social support for abstinence as a mediator of the impact of 12-step involvement.

Jason et al. (2014) also investigate the impact of dynamic social networks in supporting recovery. The paper seeks to expound on the range of information available in the area by testing the creation of trust and confidence among members in the recovery houses using the participant’s range of 12-Step involvement and time spent within the Oxford house. 28 active members from varied Oxford House recovery houses are enlisted, and the program lasts three months. The findings showed that new residents were inclined to trust the longer time residents creating the suggestion that for a recovery house to be successful, there must be a mix of tenured and new dwellers. Nonetheless, the paper falls short in explaining the particular activities that should be involved to create such bonding as well as spiritual transformation. Besides, the sample size of 28 poses a more significant question of biases. However, the study was sufficiently credible with adequate checks and balances employed to ensure objectivity.

Deep Brain Stimulation (DBS)

Carter, Bell, and Racine are amongst the experts whose works have looked at the use of deep brain stimulation. The scientists mentioned above focused mainly on DBS’s potential as a treatment of substance abuse with the assumption that indeed the approach can cure addiction being used. The method entails insertion of microelectrodes into specific areas of the brain to modulate neural activity through the passage of external electrical current. An assumption is made that DBS produces an electrical disparity at the cortico-basal ganglia-thalamocortical loop level by deactivating the target region. The treatment is not advised as it is currently at the piloting stage and more development is essential to lessen the risk exposure towards individuals. According to Pierce & Fair (2013), the method offers as a significant breakthrough that might someday provide the best alternative for the severely addicted and desperate individuals. Additionally, to enhance further treatment effectiveness, the paper recommends that the treatment is applied to severely intractable conditions of addiction. The study conducted by Pierce & Fair also advises that there be independent oversight to ensure that patients can consent and give consent based on a realistic understanding of the potential risks and benefits posed.

Offering Additional Support

McKay et al. look at the effectiveness of telephone-founded care in the clinical management of cocaine and alcohol disorders. The study by McKay et al. seeks to evaluate the success level of continuing care for drug addicts after ceasing treatment upon the expiry of the 12-month period. After a 12-month period had expired, follow-ups were made to understand the aftereffects. In particular, 359 adults who rely on either cocaine or alcohol at the time of enlisting were registered. Diverse continuous intervention programs were administered to the clients as part of optimizing the clients’ conditions and the outcomes of their commitment and participation documented. The study was meant to understand the differences between the baseline data collected at the start of the experiment and what happened later to see whether there was a significant change onwards. The most outstanding features of the study were that it (the study) exploited the issue of the patient’s power of thinking and making self-determination which has been limited in prior studies.

In trying to get an all-around view of the healing process, Rosenkranz et al. (2012) experimented on the association that exists between ill-treated teenagers and motivation among rehabilitation-seeking youths. The study by Rosenkranz et al. examined the degree to which several forms of mistreatment were related to treatment drive, and the inspiration for change was assessed. About 188 teenagers aged between 16 and 24 years participated in the study by filling questionnaires as part of the overall clinical procedures. The results portrayed the significance of emotional abuse relative to the level of drive among the participants entering the intervention program. Despite the new insight provided by the article, it fails on several fronts especially in providing the particular factors that shaped the youth’s desire. Moreover, the paper fails to distinguish between the varied forms of maltreatment to capacitate future intervention programs. Nonetheless, the article was sufficiently credible and relevant as well.

View from Different Perspectives

Alvarez et al. (2006) limit their focus to the deaf, which is a section of the society that finds it challenging to access rehabilitation services due to limited linguistic and culturally specific programs. The experiment assumed that there would be no significant variation between the deaf and hearing participants. Nonetheless, the apparent lack of ability to communicate effectively was expected to deny the deaf group access to many programs. In general, the study involved ten deaf men and ten hearing men with similar ethnic background and age groups and who had reported using drugs and alcohol in the past. The research, however, fails to generate any significant difference between the two groups. A critical look at the paper points out a significant weakness in the use of small sample groups. Often the smaller the sample group, the more likely the study is subjected to biases. Besides, the article failed to include any woman, which meant that it was impossible to use its findings that appeared to generalize the society. Nonetheless, the paper offered a desirable insight into how the addiction affects different sections of the community, including the disadvantaged groups.

Milby et al. (2005) consider the significance of housing the homeless in advancing treatment. Usually, housing is not provided for the homeless drug addicts in the period of treatment. The study involves 196 cocaine-dependent who accessed treatment but no house, those who accessed the program as well as housing, as well as those who obtained shelter but no commitment to abstinence. Those who accessed housing and abstinence programs exhibited higher prevalence than the other groups. The researchers summed up that providing abstinence-contingent housing to treatment-seeking drug addicts is essential for effective rehabilitation. Again, the article offers an important insight that adds to the amount of data available on how to manage treatment intervention. Nonetheless, more research is needed to understand the particular programs that work best with the response described above. Polcin (2009) goes a step further on the matter of housing homeless drug addicts by evaluating the impact that the supportive living setting has on the treatment. The study emanates from the challenge that treatment-seekers go through in finding the right subsistence environment such as friends, roommates, and friends. The outcome suggested that providing comfortable housing facilities provides a conducive environment for establishing and maintaining recovery.

Buckingam and Albery (2013) also attempt to understand the relation between self-efficacy and identity preference such as relapse rate and the will to act on addictive personal conduct. In particular, the authors mentioned above sought to understand the association between being simply an addict and being a recovering addict. In the study, 61 people participated being 34 men and 27 women aged between 19 and 77 years were enlisted from NA and AA in Britain. The criterion was that each one must have been an active member and must have attended meetings of either NA or AA to be enlisted. Questions were to be answered truthfully and entirely and returned to the issuer addressed in a stamped envelope. The duo found out that identity preference was associated positively to self-efficacy, while evaluative differentiation was indirectly associated with all the relapse levels as well as to the desire to act on personal conduct. The studies’ approach also serves as its advantage as it entails studying the minds of the individuals which provide a compelling insight. It shows how people can categorize themselves by organizing their social identity and how this can have an influence on their confidence as they seek to rehabilitate themselves and rectify the situation.

Analysis

The choice of intervention program is dependent on the individual’s preference and financial ability. The 12-step involvement program is less harmful and more affordable making it appropriate for the less severe cases of intervention. In desperate times, including the deep brain stimulation (DBS) might be essential although at a significant cost. Also, because of the intricacies associated with the different social-background characteristics of participants, it is important to offer additional support and encouragement. Additionally, psychologists need to approach interventions from appropriate directions to achieve optimal results. For instance, better treatment methods can be achieved through providing supportive housing conditions to the homeless treatment seekers.

Discussion

The study offers an expanded perspective into types of intervention programs and approaches to making effective interventions. Apparently, no single approach to completing an intervention plan is applicable across the board. Each substance-addicted individual seeking an intervention plan comes with new demands and challenges, making it essential psychologists adopt various measures and that they be knowledgeable of the alternatives available. In particular, treating drug addicts is possible. Several tests are available although they range in cost, complexity, and demands. Often the non-invasive measures are preferred as they pose fewer risks than the invasive ones do. Nonetheless, depending on the severity of the case, using invasive techniques can be an option. The review finds that making follow-up efforts, housing homeless addicts, motivating patients, strengthening positive views, and providing a supportive social environment can significantly increase the effectiveness of the program. The paper also shows that there is no significant difference in the way that the deaf and the usual drug addicts access treatment. Nonetheless, particular areas need further investigation to ensure that the study is more effective such as increasing the sample size significantly.

Conclusion

Overall, treating substance use addiction is possible. Several measures, both invasive and noninvasive, are available that can work be used as the platform for treatment. The effectiveness of a rehabilitation program can be enhanced if participants are kept motivated or if they are housed where they are homeless. Additionally, providing the right social environment, and making follow-ups attempts can be useful. Future studies should concentrate on strengthening the views expressed in this article by making them implementable.

References

Alvarez, J., Adebanjo, A. M., Davidson, M. K., Jason, L. A., & Davis, M. I. (2006). Oxford House: Deaf-Affirmative Support For Substance Abuse Recovery. American Annals of the Deaf, 151(4), 418-22.

Buckingham, S. A., Frings, D., & Albery, I. P. (2013). Group membership and social identity in addiction recovery. Psychology of Addictive Behaviors, 27(4), 1132-1140. doi:http://dx.doi.org.library.georgian.edu:2048/10.1037/a0032480

Carter, A., Bell, E., Racine, E., & Hall, W. (2011). Ethical issues raised by proposals to treat addiction using deep brain stimulation. Neuroethics, 4(2), 129-142.

Collins G, B., Barth J. (2013). Using the resources of AA in treating alcoholics in a general hospital. Hospital and Community Psychiatry, 30(7):480–482.

Del B. F, & Mattson M. (2001).The gender-matching assumption. In: Longabaugh R, Wirtz P, editors. Project MATCH hypotheses: Outcomes and causal chain analyses. Washington, DC: National Institute on Drug Abuse and Alcoholism; pp. 186–203.

Denis et al. (2013). 12-Step Interventions and Joint Support Programs for Substance Use Disorders: An Overview Social. Work Public Health Journal, 28 (0): 313-332

Jason, L. A., Light, J. M., Stevens, E. B., & Beers, K. (2014). Dynamic social networks in recovery homes. American Journal of Community Psychology, 53(3-4), 324-34. doi:http://dx.doi.org.library.georgian.edu:2048/10.1007/s10464-013-9610-6

McKay, J. S., Lynch, K. G., Shepard, D. S., Ratichek, S., Morrison, R., Koppenhaver, J., & Pettinati, H. M. (2004). The effectiveness of telephone-based continuing support in the clinical management of alcohol and cocaine use disorders: 12-month outcomes. Journal of Consultation and Clinical Psychology, 72(6), 967-979.

Milby, J. B., Schumacher, J. E., Wallace, D., Freedman, M. J., & Vuchinich, R. E. (2005). To house or not to house addicts: The effects of providing housing to homeless substance abusers in treatment. American Journal of Public Health, 95(7), 1259-65.

Pierce, C. R. & Fair M. V (2013). Deep Brain Stimulation for the Addressing

Addiction: Basic and Clinical Studies and Possible Mechanisms of Action. Psychopharmacology, 229 (3): 487-491

Pierce R.C, Kumaresan V. (2006). The mesolimbic dopamine mechanism: The final common pathway for the reinforcing effect of drugs of abuse? Neurosci Biobehav 30:215–238.

Polcin, Douglas L, EdD., M.F.T. (2009). A model for sober housing during outpatient treatment dagger]. Journal of Psychoactive Drugs, 41(2), 153-61.

Rosenkranz, S. E., Henderson, J. L., Muller, R. T., & Goodman, I. R. (2012). Motivation and maltreatment history among youth entering substance abuse treatment. Psychology of Addictive Behaviors, 26(1), 171-177.

Rouaud T, Lardeux S, Panayotis N, Paleressompoulle D, Cador M, Baunez C. (2017) Reducing the desire for cocaine with subthalamic nucleus deep brain stimulation. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 107:1196–1200.

Rynes, K. N., & Tonigan, J. S. (2012). Do social networks explain 12-step sponsorship effects? A prospective lagged mediation analysis. Psychology of Addictive Behaviors, 26(3), 432- 439.